Air pollution affects lichen species richness, species density, relative growth form abundance and their secondary metabolite production: a case study in Kandy district, Sri Lanka

Authors

  • Duleeka Indeewaree Gunawardana Faculty of Science, Department of Botany, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
  • Saduni M Edirisinghe Faculty of Science, Department of Botany, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
  • Charmalie L Abayasekara Faculty of Science, Department of Botany, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
  • Sarangi N P Athukorala Faculty of Science, Department of Botany, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

Abstract

Lichens are symbiotic associations between fungi and algae and/or cyanobacteria, consisting of three forms, viz: fruticose, foliose and crustose. Air pollution affects lichen diversity, percent cover, and density. The current study mainly compared the lichen species richness, density and relative abundance of each growth form among three selected sites with different degrees of pollution, viz: a site located in the Kandy City (S1), a site located 11 km away from the city (S2) and a site within a forest patch located ~12 km away from the Kandy city (S3). A random sampling method was used to collect lichens within a two km distance in the three selected sites. Percent cover and density were determined using a quadrat ladder. Acetone extracts of lichens were subjected to thin-layer chromatography (TLC), and secondary metabolites were identified by visualizing under UV (254 and 365 nm) and by Rf values. A total of 24 lichen species were collected (S1=8, S2=12, and S3=4). Percentage richness of crustose and foliose lichens was higher in S2 compared to S1, while Leparia sp. and Lecanora sp. were common in S1 and S2. Atranorin, salazinic acid, and zeorin were detected as common compounds from lichens in S1 and S2 sites, exhibiting photoprotecting and antioxidant properties. Fumarprotocetraric acid, which tolerates harsh environmental conditions, and Physodalic acid, which is produced in response to pollution stress were detected from lichens from S1. Norstictic acid was identified in lichens from S2. The results show a difference between the lichen community and secondary metabolites among the three sites.

Author Biographies

  • Duleeka Indeewaree Gunawardana, Faculty of Science, Department of Botany, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
    Department of Biology, Student
  • Saduni M Edirisinghe, Faculty of Science, Department of Botany, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
    Department of Botany, Student
  • Charmalie L Abayasekara, Faculty of Science, Department of Botany, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
    Department of Botany, Professor (Ph.D.)
  • Sarangi N P Athukorala, Faculty of Science, Department of Botany, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
    Department of Botany, Senior Lecturer (Ph.D.)

References

Abeyratne, V. D., & Ileperuma, O. A. (2006) Air pollution monitoring in the city of Kandy: possible transboundary effects. Journal of the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka, 34(3), 137-141. http://doi.org/10.4038/jnsfsr.v34i3.3644

Amo de Paz, G., Raggio, J., Gomez-Serranillos, M.P., Palomino, O.M., Gonzalez-Burgos, E., Carretero, M.E., Crespo, A. (2010) HPLC isolation of antioxidant constituents from Xanthoparmelia spp. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis. 53, 165–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpba.2010.04.013

Armaleo, D., Zhang, Y., & Cheung, S. (2008) Light might regulate divergently depside and depsidone accumulation in the lichen Parmotrema hypotropum by affecting thallus temperature and water potential. Mycologia, 100(4), 565-576. https://doi.org/10.3852/07-162R

Bajpai, R., Upreti, D. K., & Dwivedi, S. K. (2010) Passive monitoring of atmospheric heavy metals in a historical city of central India by Lepraria lobificans Nyl. Environmental monitoring and assessment, 166(1-4), 477-484. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-009-1016-4

Białońska, D., & Dayan, F. E. (2005) Chemistry of the lichen Hypogymnia physodes transplanted to an industrial region. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 31(12), 2975-2991. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10886-005-8408-x

Boustie, J., & Grube, M. (2005) Lichens--a promising source of bioactive secondary metabolites. Plant Genetic Resources, 3(2), 273. https://doi.org/10.1079/PGR200572

Boustie, J., Tomasi, S., Grube, M. (2011) Bioactive lichen metabolites: Alpine habitats as an untapped source. Phytochemistry Reviews, 10(3), 287-307. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11101-010-9201-1

Cislaghi, C., & Nimis, P. L. (1997) Lichens, air pollution and lung cancer. Nature, 387(6632), 463. https://doi.org/10.1038/387463a0

Culberson, C. F. (1972) Improved conditions and new data for identification of lichen products by standardized thin-layer chromatographic method. Journal of Chromatography, 72(1), 113-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9673(72)80013-X

Culberson, C. F., Culberson, W. L., & Johnson, A. (1977) Thermally induced chemical artifacts in lichens. Phytochemistry, 16(1), 127-130. https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(77)83029-X

Deduke, C., Timsina, B., & Piercey-Normore, M. D. (2012) Effect of environmental change on secondary metabolite production in lichen-forming fungi. International perspectives on global environmental change. InTech, 197-230.

Dharmadhikari, M., Jite, P. K., & Chettiar, S. (2010) Antimicrobial activity of extracts of the lichen and its isolated mycobiont. ASIAN J. EXP. BIOL. SCI. SPL, 54-58.

Elangasinghe, M. A., & Shanthini, R. (2008) Determination of atmospheric PM10 concentration in Kandy in relation to traffic intensity. Journal of the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka, 36(3).

Hauck, M., Jürgens, S. R., Willenbruch, K., Huneck, S., & Leuschner, C. (2009) Dissociation and metal-binding characteristics of yellow lichen substances suggest a relationship with site preferences of lichens. Annals of Botany, 103(1), 13-22. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcn202

Henderson-Sellers, A., & Seaward, M. R. D. (1979) Monitoring lichen reinvasion of ameliorating environments. Environmental Pollution, 19(3), 207-213. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-9327(79)90042-9

Huneck, S. (1999) The significance of lichens and their metabolites. Naturwissenschaften, 86, 559-570.20.

McEvoy, M., Nybakken, L., Solhaug, K., & Gauslaa, Y. (2006) UV triggers the synthesis of the widely distributed secondary lichen compound usnic acid. Mycological Progress, 5(4), 221-229. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11557-006-0514-9

Moore, D. (1998) Fungal morphogenesis. Cambridge University Press, UK. 469 pp.

Nakajima, H., Hara, K., Yamamoto, Y., & Itoh, K. (2015) Effects of Cu on the content of chlorophylls and secondary metabolites in the Cu-hyperaccumulator lichen Stereocaulon japonicum. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 113, 477-482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2014.12.038

Nash III, T. H. (2008) Lichen Biology (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Nimis, P.L., Purvis, W.O. (2002) Monitoring lichens as indicators of pollution. Monitoring with Lichens - Monitoring Lichens, 7-10. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0423-7_2

Nybakken, L., Solhaug, K., Bilger, A., & Gauslaa, W. (2004) The lichens Xanthoria elegans and Cetraria islandica maintain a high protection against UV-B radiation in Arctic habitats. Oecologia, 140(2), 211-216. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-004-1583-6

Pyatt, F. B. (1970) Lichens as indicators of air pollution in a steel producing town in South Wales. Environmental Pollution (1970), 1(1), 45-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-9327(70)90005-4

Pawlik-SkowroÅ„ska, B., & BaÄkor, M. (2011) Zn/Pb-tolerant lichens with higher content of secondary metabolites produce less phytochelatins than specimens living in unpolluted habitats. Environmental and Experimental Botany, 72(1), 64-70.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2010.07.002

Shukla, V., Patel, D. K., Bajpai, R., Semwal, M., & Upreti, D. K. (2016) Ecological implication of variation in the secondary metabolites in Parmelioid lichens with respect to altitude. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23(2), 1391-1397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5311-z

Solhaug, K. A., & Gauslaa, Y. (1996) Parietin, a photoprotective secondary product of the lichen Xanthoria parietina. Oecologia, 108(3), 412-418. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00333715

Valencia-Islas, N., Zambrano, A., & Rojas, J. L. (2007) Ozone reactivity and free radical scavenging behavior of phenolic secondary metabolites in lichens exposed to chronic oxidant air pollution from Mexico City. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 33(8), 1619-1634. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10886-007-9330-1

Weerakoon, G. (2015) Fascinating lichens of Sri Lanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka, Ceylon Tea Services, PLC, 188.

Downloads

Published

2021-12-31

Issue

Vol. 12 No. 2 (2021): Ruhuna J Sci

Section

Articles

License

From Volume 7 (2016) onwards, all articles published in Ruhuna Journal of Science are Open Access articles published under the Creative Commons CC BY-NC 4.0 International License. This License permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited and is not used for commercial purposes.

Copyright on any research article published in RJS is retained by the respective author(s).

Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:

a) Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License CC-BY-NC 4.0 International, that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.

b) Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.

c) Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).